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Income inequality not gender inequality positively covaries with female sexualization on social media
Khandis Blake et al.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 28 August 2018, Pages 8722-8727
Abstract:
Publicly displayed, sexualized depictions of women have proliferated, enabled by new communication technologies, including the internet and mobile devices. These depictions are often claimed to be outcomes of a culture of gender inequality and female oppression, but, paradoxically, recent rises in sexualization are most notable in societies that have made strong progress toward gender parity. Few empirical tests of the relation between gender inequality and sexualization exist, and there are even fewer tests of alternative hypotheses. We examined aggregate patterns in 68,562 sexualized self-portrait photographs (“sexy selfies”) shared publicly on Twitter and Instagram and their association with city-, county-, and cross-national indicators of gender inequality. We then investigated the association between sexy-selfie prevalence and income inequality, positing that sexualization — a marker of high female competition — is greater in environments in which incomes are unequal and people are preoccupied with relative social standing. Among 5,567 US cities and 1,622 US counties, areas with relatively more sexy selfies were more economically unequal but not more gender oppressive. A complementary pattern emerged cross-nationally (113 nations): Income inequality positively covaried with sexy-selfie prevalence, particularly within more developed nations. To externally validate our findings, we investigated and confirmed that economically unequal (but not gender-oppressive) areas in the United States also had greater aggregate sales in goods and services related to female physical appearance enhancement (beauty salons and women’s clothing). Here, we provide an empirical understanding of what female sexualization reflects in societies and why it proliferates.
Revisiting the Jezebel Stereotype: The Impact of Target Race on Sexual Objectification
Joel Anderson et al.
Psychology of Women Quarterly, forthcoming
Abstract:
The overt objectification and dehumanization of Black people has a long history throughout the Western world. However, few researchers have explored whether such perceptions still persist implicitly and whether Black women are sexually objectified at an interpersonal level. We sought to address this gap by exploring whether Black women are sexually objectified to a greater extent than White women and whether target sexualization exacerbates this effect. In Study 1, using eye-tracking technology (N = 38), we provide evidence that individuals attend more often, and for longer durations, to the sexual body parts of Black women compared to White women, particularly when presented in a sexualized manner. In Studies 2a (N = 120) and 2b (N = 131), we demonstrated that Black women are implicitly associated with both animals and objects to a greater degree than White women with a Go/No-Go Association Task. We discuss the implications of such dehumanizing treatment of Black people and Black women in U.S. society. We hope that this evidence will increase awareness that objectification can happen outside the realm of conscious thought and that related interventions ought to include an ethnicity-specific component.
When Transparency Fails: Bias and Financial Incentives in Ridesharing Platforms
Jorge Mejia & Chris Parker
Indiana University Working Paper, July 2018
Abstract:
Passenger discrimination in transportation systems is a well-documented phenomenon. With the advent and success of ridesharing platforms, such as Lyft, Uber and Via, there has been hope that discrimination against under-represented minorities may be reduced. However, early evidence has suggested the existance of bias in ridesharing platforms. Several platforms responded by reducing operational transparency through the removal of information about the rider's gender and race from the ride request presented to drivers. However, following this change, bias may still manifest after a request is accepted, at which point the rider's picture is displayed, through driver cancelation. Our primary research question is to what extent a rider's gender, race, and perception of support for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights impact cancelation rates on ridesharing platforms. We investigate this through a large field experiment using a major ridesharing platform in North America. By manipulating rider names and profile pictures, we observe drivers' patterns of behavior in accepting and canceling rides. Our results confirm that bias at the ride request stage has been eliminated. However, at the cancelation stage, racial and LGBT biases are persistent, while biases related to gender appear to have been eliminated. We also explore whether dynamic pricing moderates (through increased pay to drivers) or exacerbates (by signaling that there are many riders, allowing drivers to be more selective) these biases. We find a moderating effect of peak pricing, with consistently lower biased behavior.
Mental Illness, the Media, and the Moral Politics of Mass Violence: The Role of Race in Mass Shootings Coverage
Scott Duxbury, Laura Frizzell & Sadé Lindsay
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, forthcoming
Methods: The study examines a unique data set of 433 news documents covering 219 mass shootings between January 1, 2013, and December 31, 2015. It analyzes the data using a mixed methods approach, combining logistic regression with content analysis.
Results: Quantitative findings show that Whites and Latinos are more likely to have their crime attributed to mental illness than Blacks. Qualitative findings show that rhetoric within these discussions frame White men as sympathetic characters, while Black and Latino men are treated as perpetually violent threats to the public.
Intersectional Escape: Older Women Elude Agentic Prescriptions More Than Older Men
Ashley Martin, Michael North & Katherine Phillips
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, forthcoming
Abstract:
Both older individuals and women are proscribed from engaging in power-related behaviors, with women proscribed from behaving agentically and older individuals expected to cede desirable resources through “Succession.” However, little is known about whether these overlapping agency prescriptions equally target men and women across the lifespan. In seven studies, we find that older men face the strongest prescriptions to behave less agentically and cede resources, whereas older women are comparatively spared. We show that agency prescriptions more strongly target older men, compared to older women (Studies 1a, 1b, 2) and their younger counterparts (Studies 3 and 4) and examine social and economic consequences for agentic behavior in political, economic, and academic domains. We also find that older men garner more extreme (i.e., polarized) reactions due to their greater perceived resource threat (Studies 4-6). We conclude by discussing theoretical implications for diversity research and practical considerations for accommodating the fast-aging population.
You just don’t get us! Positive, but non-verifying, evaluations foster prejudice and discrimination
Alexandra Vázquez, Ángel Gómez & William Swann
Social Psychology, July/August 2018, Pages 231-242
Abstract:
Researchers have assumed that self-enhancement strivings motivate compensatory prejudice against minorities. We ask if self-verification strivings might explain compensatory prejudice more parsimoniously. Three studies tested whether receiving overly positive evaluations from outgroup members (immigrants) amplifies prejudice and discrimination against them. In Experiment 1 participants who received excessively positive evaluations from immigrants expressed less liking for them and donated less to them than those who received negative verifying feedback. Experiment 2 replicated these findings only when participants had sufficient time to reflect on the feedback. Experiment 3 indicated that diminished perceptions of being understood mediated the impact of overly positive evaluations on prejudicial reactions. These results suggest that self-verification theory offers a more parsimonious account of compensatory prejudice than self-enhancement theory.
Media Construction of Crime Revisited: Media Types, Consumer Contexts, and Frames of Crime and Justice
Andrew Baranauskas & Kevin Drakulich
Criminology, forthcoming
Abstract:
Through this study, we shed new light on a key line of inquiry for criminologists: the way the media influence the public's understanding of crime and justice. We argue for expanding the lens of studies on the media's construction of crime, moving away from one‐dimensional reactions to crime to an integrated set of frames about crime and justice policy while considering the potential influence of a diverse array of media forms and content. Most critically, this social construction process must be placed in context, specifically, the racial composition in which people consume media. By using two nationally representative surveys matched with contextual data, we identify two forms of media consumption that seem important to understandings of crime: local television news and TV crime dramas. Interestingly, local news seems more important than national news even to perceptions of national crime trends, whereas news consumed over the Internet is not relevant, nor are 24‐hour cable news channels once political views are taken into account. Television news viewers are also more likely to support tougher crime policies. Importantly, context matters: The influence of television news and crime dramas on perceptions of crime is strongest among White respondents who live near larger numbers of Black neighbors.
The Balanced Objectification Hypothesis: The Effects of Objectification Valence and Body Sentiment on Source Sentiment
Sarah Gervais et al.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, forthcoming
Abstract:
In this work, we introduced and tested the balanced objectification hypothesis (BOH). Derived from an integration of balance theory and objectification research, the BOH suggests that people seek psychological balance during objectifying interactions with others. Corresponding with the BOH, men and women perceived objectification sources as higher in warmth and intended to approach the objectification source more when they experienced complimentary objectification in conjunction with positive body sentiment (vs. negative body sentiment) and critical objectification in conjunction with negative body sentiment (vs. positive body sentiment) across four experiments. Self–other congruency emerged as a mediator and inconsistency between the content of the objectification experience and body sentiment (whether they were both focused on weight or sex appeal or not) emerged as a boundary condition, in line with the BOH. Theoretical implications and critical next steps for testing the BOH are discussed.
Beyond Black and White: An Analysis of Newspaper Representations of Alleged Criminal Offenders Based on Race and Ethnicity
Alayna Colburn & Lisa Melander
Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, forthcoming
Abstract:
Media has a substantial role in providing knowledge about crime to the public; however, many representations of crime and criminality perpetuate damaging racial stereotypes. The purpose of this study is to identify how minorities are portrayed in print media as compared to their White counterparts. The study includes an ethnographic content analysis of newspaper crime stories and accompanying images from widely circulated newspapers published between August 1, 2014, and October 31, 2014. Findings reveal minorities are not only overrepresented in crime story images, but closer examination uncovers nuanced differences in the type and quality of pictures by race and ethnicity.
Nice guys and gals can finish first: Personality and speed-dating success among Asian Americans
Karen Wu, Chuansheng Chen & Ellen Greenberger
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, forthcoming
Abstract:
In Western culture, both pop theory and recent behavioral research support the “nice guy stereotype,” suggesting that communal qualities that emphasize caring for others may be unattractive in men. Few studies, however, have examined the initial attractiveness of personality in other cultures through methods other than self-report. We tested associations between personal attributes (i.e., communal attributes, social desirability, self-esteem, narcissism) and speed-dating success (i.e., ratings of mate desirability) among young Asian Americans. Single Asian Americans (N = 262) went on speed-dates (N observations = 2,181) with members of the other gender and completed questionnaires about each date. Using the social relations model, we found that communal attributes (both self-rated and perceived) and self-esteem, but not social desirability or narcissism, contributed to greater speed-dating success for men and women. On the whole, contrary to the popular saying and previous findings among Europeans/European Americans, findings indicate that nice guys and gals can finish first.
The "face race lightness illusion": An effect of the eyes and pupils?
Bruno Laeng et al.
PLoS ONE, August 2018
Abstract:
In an internet-based, forced-choice, test of the ‘face race lightness illusion’, the majority of respondents, regardless of their ethnicity, reported perceiving the African face as darker in skin tone than the European face, despite the mean luminance, contrast and numbers of pixels of the images were identical. In the laboratory, using eye tracking, it was found that eye fixations were distributed differently on the African face and European face, so that gaze dwelled relatively longer onto the locally brighter regions of the African face and, in turn, mean pupil diameters were smaller than for the European face. There was no relationship between pupils’ size and implicit social attitude (IAT) scores. In another experiment, the faces were presented either tachistoscopically (140 ms) or longer (2500 ms) so that, when gaze was prevented from looking directly at the faces in the former condition, the tendency to report the African face as “dark” disappeared, but it was present when gaze was free to move for just a few seconds. We conclude that the presence of the illusion depends on oculomotor behavior and we also propose a novel account based on a predictive strategy of sensory acquisition. Specifically, by differentially directing gaze towards to facial regions that are locally different in luminance, the resulting changes in retinal illuminance yield respectively darker or brighter percepts while attending to each face, hence minimizing the mismatch between visual input and the learned perceptual prototypes of ethnic categories.
Mean Girls: Provocative Clothing Leads to Intra-Sexual Competition between Females
Eleanor Keys & Manpal Singh Bhogal
Current Psychology, September 2018, Pages 543–551
Abstract:
This study aimed to investigate indirect aggression between females from an evolutionary perspective, considering indirect aggression as a mechanism of intra-sexual competition. Previous research suggests that females who are dressed provocatively, or appear ‘sexually available’, are more likely to be victims of indirect aggression from other females. Investigating this notion via an empirical measure and a word-selection task, this study involved a female confederate posing as a participant, who was dressed provocatively in one condition and conservatively in the other. Sixty-five females completed an intra-sexual competition scale and a word selection task in which they were able to select complimentary or derogatory phrases to describe the confederate. Making derogative comments is a common form of indirect aggression; therefore, those who selected derogatory phrases could be considered to be exhibiting indirect aggression. Consistent with our hypotheses, females in the provocative condition obtained significantly higher intra-sexual competition scores, selected more derogatory words, and less complimentary words than those in the conservative condition, indicating that females dressed provocatively are indirectly aggressed against to a greater extent than those that are not. This paper adds further support to the notion that indirect aggression is used by females as a method of intra-sexual competition, particularly towards provocatively dressed females.
A Cross-National Study of Evolutionary Origins of Gender Shopping Styles: She Gatherer, He Hunter?
Charles Dennis et al.
Journal of International Marketing, forthcoming
Abstract:
The authors investigate gender shopping styles across countries and explore whether differences between male and female shopping styles are greater than differences in shopping styles between consumers across countries. The study develops a conceptual model to test Eagly and Wood's (1999) convergence hypothesis. Applied to shopping, this predicts that men and women should become more similar in shopping styles as traditional gender-based divisions in wage labor and domestic labor disappear. The results of a survey on shopping behavior across 11 countries indicate that men and women are evolutionarily predisposed to different shopping styles. Counter to the convergence hypothesis, differences in shopping styles between women and men are greater in higher-gender-equality countries than in lower-gender-equality countries. Empathizing — the ability to tune into someone's thoughts and feelings — mediates shopping style more for women, while systemizing — the degree to which an individual possesses spatial skills — mediates shopping style more for men. Results suggest that gender-based retail segmentation is more strategically relevant than country-based segmentation. The authors discuss the implications of their findings for international marketing theory and practice.